5. Biblical aspects of the theme of human work

How is work understood and described in the holy scriptures? Of course it is not possible to present a comprehensive review here. It will need to suffice to point out a number of essential aspects.

5.A. The commandment to keep the Sabbath.

Of central importance for the biblical understanding of work is without a doubt the fourth commandment. It is not only, that, among the ten commandments, it is stated in a form easily remembered, but, beyond that, it is recalled into memory and repeated many times. In the Pentateuch alone we find it thirteen times, as well as repeated references in other books (Exod 12:14-16; 16:23-30; 20:8-11; 23:12; 31:12-17; 35:1-2; Lev 19:3; 19:30; 23:2-3; 26:2; Num 15:32-36; Deut 5:12-15; 16:8; in addition: Neh 10:32; 13:15-21; Isa 56:2; 58:13; Jer 17:21-22; 17:27 etc.). The frequency of citations alone indicates that this commandment held considerable significance for the tradition of the people of Israel. Thus, it is all the more striking that in today's churches the Sabbath commandment plays only a minor role.

"Remember the Sabbath day, and keep it holy. Six days you shall labour and do all your work. But the seventh day is a Sabbath to the LORD your God; you shall not do any work – you, your son or your daughter, your male or female slave, your livestock, or the alien resident in your towns. For in six days the LORD made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that is in them, but rested the seventh day; therefore the LORD blessed the Sabbath day and consecrated it (Exod 20, 8-11).

The commandment is essentially a command to rest. Foremost is not the divine charge to work, but far more the command to respect the limits on human work set by God. Humans are called to worship God. Work, especially work, should not deter them. In fact, this calling ought to be before their eyes constantly even as they work. Work and repose stand in inseparable relationship to each other. As necessary for maintaining life as work is, it must not be allowed to swell beyond its allotted time and take possession of the worker. The commandment to rest calls humans to remember that both physical as well as spiritual regeneration is required.

Human work is, therefore, largely work done during the day. "When the sun rises, they (the lions) withdraw and lie down in their dens. People go out to their work and to their labour until the evening" (Psa 104:22-23).

"Humans, as seen in the biblical tradition, are not primarily creative. Indeed creativity is a fundamental dimension of their existence, but it is a secondary one. It is an expression of the high degree of receptivity which characterises them. Before they create, they restore themselves, before they give, they receive. This restoring of oneself and allowing oneself to receive is the primary sense of the Sabbath repose." [Miroslav Volf, Zukunft der Arbeit, Arbeit der Zukunft Der Arbeitsbegriff bei Karl Marx und seine theologische Wertung, München,/Mainz 1988, p. 164 f.]

5.B. The commission to work?

In the Old Testament as well as in the Holy Scriptures generally, work is seen as a natural necessity. In order to eat, one needed to work. The Proverbs repeatedly recall this wisdom: "Laziness brings on deep sleep; an idle person will suffer hunger (Prov 19:15)." Idleness can't be pleasing to God. Humans must fit into God's creation. They must sow if they are to reap. Work is a natural necessity. It is an unavoidable aspect of human being.

But, did humankind receive a commission to transform the world through their labour? There is considerable evidence which speaks against this. Indeed one hears again and again of Genesis 1:28: "God blessed them, and God said to them, 'Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth and subdue it.'" However, in this sentence there is no express reference to human work, and it is by no means understood, that this phrase must be taken to mean – 'subdue it through your work'. Were it so, that humans were supposed to subdue the earth step by step, then it would follow that more would be said about this process in the following chapters. Just how this was to come about would need to be elaborated. However, there is no mention of it. All achievements of humans as "homo faber" stand under an ambiguous sign: it is Cain who becomes a city builder (Gen 4:17). And, whereas Jubal becomes the father of those who build stringed and reed musical instruments, his cousin, Tubal-cain, is responsible for the making of all kinds of bronze and iron tools (4:21-22). Then violence raises its head. And with what mixed results are human skills employed in building the Tower of Babel (Gen 11)!

In truth, Genesis 1:28 is meant to convey nothing other than what follows in the next chapter. Humans were to toil together with the creator in working the earth, "... no plant of the field was yet in the earth and no herb of the field had yet sprung up – for the LORD God had not caused it to rain upon the earth, and there was no one to till the ground (Gen. 2:4-5)." And somewhat later one reads: "The LORD God took the man and put him in the garden of Eden to till it and keep it (2:15)." The purpose of this work is clear: humans needed to be able to eat (2:16). According to the Scriptures, humankind is indeed put in charge of the creation. What most distinguishes humans, however, is their ability to be in communion with God, not in their ability to rule over the visible world. From the fact that God has crowned humankind with honor and sovereignty, it does not follow that humans are to subdue the earth, rather, it forms the basis for their unending wonder. "O Lord, our Sovereign, how majestic is your name in all the earth! (Psa 8:9)."

5.C. God's curse after the fall

To what degree has the character of human work changed as a result of man's disobedience to God? The answer often heard is: from now on work becomes toil. What once was simply cultivating the earth, now has become bound up with burdensome toil. The answer does indeed seem to be supplied by the text: "By the sweat of your face you shall eat bread until you return to the ground, for out of it you were taken; you are dust, and to dust you shall return" (Gen 3:19). However, upon closer scrutiny, this text says far more – the consequence of the Fall is a deeply disturbed relationship with the earth. "Because you ... have eaten of the tree ... cursed is the ground because of you (3:17)." Adam's punishment is that the earth is cursed. The earth no longer yields what he desires: "thorns and thistles it shall bring forth for you (3:18)". The earth no longer stands ready to serve mankind, rather it stubbornly resists his efforts to work it. This curse shall not be removed until the time of salvation:. "On that day I will answer, says the LORD, I will answer the heavens and they shall answer the earth; and the earth shall answer the grain, the wine, and the oil, and they shall answer Jez'reel;" (Hos 2:21-22).

In this new situation, work becomes even more unavoidable. Humans must overcome the recalcitrance of nature and in this they are dependent upon God's blessing. Humans must work, but its fruitfulness lies not in their hands, rather it is a gift of God. Humans must rely upon God's devotion and faithfulness. No matter that these blessings have been promised, they can never be taken for granted. Fruitfulness is cause for thankfulness and praise. When blessed by God humankind can celebrate and sing (Psa 65). The burden of work loses its sting due to God's blessing of fruitfulness. Without ceasing to be toil, work turns into joy. To harvest can become an experience of great release: "Those who go out weeping, bearing the seed for sowing, shall come home with shouts of joy, carrying their sheaves." (Psa 126:6).

Nevertheless, the curse which lies upon the earth is not thereby removed. Work can be in vain and humans can become homeless on the earth which was intended to shelter them.

It is especially important today to recall this more profound dimension of God's curse. It goes beyond the fact that human work has become burdensome toil. If that were all, then in our present day, one might succumb to the illusion of having out smarted God. Certainly, many of the burdensome aspects of human work have been overcome by the technologies of recent centuries. Have we not nearly returned to the long lost paradise of work with out toil? Alas, God's curse reaches far deeper! The relationship between humans and the earth remains disturbed. No matter how far human dominion over nature has been extended, nature ultimately remains beyond the grasp of mankind. Just as he believes himself to be approaching paradise, nature rebels, as though to prove that he has become no more than a giant with clay feet.

5.D. Work in the realm of the creation

The fourth commandment perceives God's act of creation as the paradigm for the sequence of workdays followed by the Sabbath. Just as God created heaven and earth in six days and rested on the seventh, so too should the people of Israel pause on the seventh day. The rhythm of work and repose mirrors the rhythm underlying the act of the creator. The commandment to keep the Sabbath is more than just a pragmatic proposition. It points up the fact that human work is bound up with creation and with its inner order. Without God's creation, which preceded humankind, they have no basis for engaging in work. Without God's loving kindness, which accompanies humans on their journey, their work leads to naught. Without God's dedication to humankind, they would be stranded in the world. The recurrence of the Sabbath calls humans to remember that, from the outset, their work is totally embedded in God's creation.

And not only this cycle of seven is determinative: the festivals of the children of Israel follow the rhythm of sowing and reaping. The Sabbath not only entails repose for humans, but for the creation as well. On the seventh day nature remains protected from every human incursion. While humans rest, they may recall that "the earth and all that is upon it" belongs to God, and, furthermore, that God stands in direct relationship with all creatures. The Sabbath is the day of rest for all of creation, so that it may praise Him without interference.

This dimension of the Sabbath can be seen even more clearly in the practice of the Sabbath and jubilee years. In every seventh year the land is to lie fallow, as well as in the year following seven times seven, the fiftieth year (Lev 25; Exod 23:10). God sees to it that the creation receives its due. As Calvin put it with surprising clarity: "God looks at this commandment, in warning through the Prophets that the earth shall enjoy its repose, when the land shall have given up its inhabitants. For because they had polluted the earth by violating the Sabbath (2 Chron 36), such that it moaned under the onerous burden, he says that it will rest for a very long time, in order to restore itself from the work which it had endured for so long." [Comm. Moise, Exode, ch. 23, v. 10, Biéler, p. 435]

5.E. Work – a duty for all

Physical toil was not disparaged in Israel. Instead, it was expected that everyone do their share of necessary work. It is often pointed out, that the biblical tradition differs markedly in this respect from Greek civilization. There, bodily labour was relegated to slaves and even the crafts were deemed unworthy of free citizens. True fulfillment was to be found alone in political activity. In the Holy Scriptures work is assessed differently. Of course we read here too of exploitation and of socage (share cropping), and slavery plays a significant role. Basically, however, work is understood to be a duty for all, and all work is accordingly honored.

The Holy Scripture is exceptional for the strong sense of social responsibility exhibited. An important example is once again the fourth commandment. Repose on the seventh day is not meant just for employers, it is meant for all: "...you shall not do any work – you, your son, your daughter, your male or female slave, your livestock, or the alien resident in your towns (Exod 20:10)". Workers are more or less seen as a community before God. Numerous rules apply regarding just payment, and the prophets raise their voices time and again against all forms of exploitation.

Sabbath and jubilee years are supposed to ensure that injustice and enslavement come to a halt at regular intervals and that the social community is reestablished.

The contrast to the Greek world should not be overplayed. Above all this difference should not be taken as grounds for deriving a modern work ethic out of the Holy Scriptures. It is argued, that while Greeks disdained work, Holy Scripture praises it, indeed, even sees work as a God given duty. This conclusion is scarcely justified. Although work is expected of all, it is never seen as the fulfillment of human life. Work is necessary to stay alive and it should be participated in by all, so that no one becomes a burden to others, but that all contribute to the common good.

5.F. Work is not a central theme in the New Testament

The sense and purpose of work is mentioned only in passing in the New Testament. Therefore, it is pointless to use it as the basis for a coherent theory of work. The exegetical examples sometimes cited in theological writings do not truly bear the burden of proof usually asked of them. For instance, it is highly questionable how much can be made of the information that Joseph, and perhaps Jesus himself, practiced a trade. The New Testament itself scarcely seems to lend much importance to this fact. In the tradition of the Christian church as well, little of significance resulted. Joseph as the patron saint of work is a construct of the twentieth century!  [In 1955 Pope Pius XII proclaimed May 1st to be the day of Joseph the worker.]

Human work in the New Testament is simply a given necessity. People work – they fish, they till the soil, they work in the home; here and there we hear of all kinds of occupations – more or less exalted ones, more or less honorable. ones. But the actual thematic of the Gospel Jesus proclaims is the onset of God's Kingdom and the new life which opens up. All attention is directed towards God's call to this new life. Whatever people may do or whoever they may be, all are radically subject to this new calling. For the disciples this means that they leave the occupations which they had practiced. They are transformed from fishermen into fishers of men. Not only for the group of apostles, but for all who follow him, the coming of Jesus involves a reversal of priorities. Everyday work has to be fit in as best it can.

As any concordance will show, the words "deed" and "work" are by no means uncommon in the New Testament. But, on one hand they are used primarily to show what Christ has done for us and, on the other hand, what Christians are to do in response. "...My food is to do the will of him who sent me and to do his work" (John 4:34). And: "I sent you to reap that for which you did not labour. Others have laboured, and you have entered into their labour" (4:38). As in this example, many words which, in their literal sense, refer to daily work, are used metaphorically to describe the spiritual calling of Christians: "fishing", "sowing", "building", "keeping house", etc. This applies as well for the term "God's fellow worker" (1 Cor 3:9; 2 Cor 6:7). It is by proclaiming the Gospel, not by earthly labour, that the apostles become God's co-workers.

As we have already seen with Luther, in the New Testament, the word "calling" (klesis) is never used to apply to someone's earthly occupation. God always calls people into his service. "We must deplore and protest against the secularization of the biblical conception of vocation in our modern usage; we cannot with propriety speak of God's calling a man to be engineer or a doctor or a schoolmaster. God calls doctors and engineers and schoolmasters to be prophets, evangelists, pastors and teachers as laymen in his Church, just as he calls brick-layers, engine-drivers and machine-minders."  [Alan Richardson, The Biblical Doctrine of Work, London 1952, p. 36]

When Jesus preached the Kingdom of God he also called for a radical trust in God's love and caring. Work is put to this test as well. Work is not intended to provide a means for insuring one's future. Jesus warns against accumulating ever greater wealth. People should be aware that in every moment of their lives they are totally dependent upon God. It is not by chance that the petition to "give us this day our daily bread" falls in the middle of the Lord's Prayer. Work is the prerequisite for daily bread as well, but it can no longer be made the central thing in our lives.

5.G. If someone does not want to work, then neither shall they eat.

This does not imply that daily work was disparaged as unworthy activity in the New Testament. Nor does it imply that it was a matter of indifference whether one worked. The preeminence of the actual calling meant, that "secular occupations are to be regarded not as ends in themselves, but as means to the service of the Kingdom of God." [ibid., p. 37]   What does that mean in practice? How should work be gone about so that it serves this purpose?

In general, Christians do have to work to support themselves. Paul spoke quite critically of a group in Thessalonica, which, for reasons remaining unclear, shirked doing work: "For we hear that some of you are living in idleness, mere busybodies, not doing any work. Now such persons we command and exhort in the Lord Jesus Christ to do their work quietly and to earn their own living" (2 Thess 1:11-12). No one is to live at the expense of others. All shall contribute according to their best efforts to the support of all others. Work also always serves to come to the aid of the weak; as he said to the eldest at Ephesus: "In all this I have given you an example that by such work we must support the weak, remembering the words of the Lord Jesus, for he himself said, 'It is more blessed to give than to receive.'" (Acts 20:35).

Paul held himself to this rule. Although the apostle and other representatives of the community apparently were released from work for their duties, he worked to support himself (Acts 20:34): "We were not idle when we were with you and we did not eat anyone's bread without paying for it; but with toil and labour we worked night and day, so that we might not burden any of you"(2 Thess 3:7-9).

Daily work must be so carried out that God's presence and love can shine through. Christians should distinguish themselves by the fact that they do not shy away from the toil of work and that they are attentive to the needs of others. The New Testament does not expressly attack slavery. Masters are, however, called upon to treat their slaves justly and fairly, and to take them as their equal in Christ, for they (the masters) know that they also have a Master in heaven (Coloss 4:1). Slaves in turn are admonished to serve their masters: "Whatever your task, put yourselves into it, as done for the Lord and not for your masters, since you know that from the Lord you will receive the inheritance as your reward;" (Coloss 3:23). And, daily work as well is supposed to bring about community in Christ. Work, too, is a realm where God's love can be demonstrated.

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