2. The topic of work as seen by the Roman Catholic Church

How do things look from the Roman Catholic point of view? Is a different voice to be heard? One immediately notices that since the encyclical Rerum Novarum of Leo XIII, the Roman Catholic Magisterium has devoted a great deal of attention to this topic. In contrast to the World Council of Churches, the Roman Catholic Church has made understanding the nature of work a clear priority. Since the second Vatican Council the Magisterium has propagated a new view of work.

The encyclical Rerum Novarum (1891) marks a clear break. Pope Leo XIII recognized that a new era had come and that the church must make its voice heard about the new economic and social order. "The thirst for innovation which has long held sway in societies has put them in a state of fevered agitation which, sooner or later, must extend beyond the political realm into the realm of the social economy." [Denis Maugenast, Le discours social de l'Eglise catholique, Paris 1985, 30.]  The encyclical addressed, above all else, the plight of people who work and it sought to offer answers to the great questions of the time which were compatible with truth and justice. The text pleads for a new kind of relationship in society: solely through a constructive collaboration between the different social partners could just solutions be found.

The encyclical also emphasizes the dignity of workers, and thereby also the dignity of work. The Pope defined work as "human activity ordained to the satisfaction of the basic needs of life, notably to conserve life (34)." Work is part of every person's vocation. It has a social dimension "because one can assert without erring that the origin of the wealth of nations is found in the labour of workers (27)." The personhood of the worker and his or her rights must be protected. A worker's strength must not be taken advantage of or exploited. "The strength to work is inherent to a person and belongs to the one who exercises it and to that person's heirs (34)."

These basic thoughts are taken up repeatedly in the following decades and elaborated in ever new ways, for instance in the encyclical Quadragesimo Anno (1931), forty years after the Rerum Novarum appeared. A new dimension was added by the Second Vatican Council which went considerably beyond the relatively sober thoughts of Rerum Novarum. Building on the groundwork of the two encyclicals of John XXIII, Mater et Magistra and Pacem in Terris, the viewpoint is now developed that "people further elaborate the work of the Creator, that they provide for the well being of their brothers and sisters and, through their personal efforts, contribute to the fulfillment of the divine plan" (Gaudium et Spes, 34). The pastoral constitution dealing with the "church in the world today" dedicates a chapter of its own to the theme "human labour in the world" (I, 3). [Walter Abbot, The Documents of Vatican II, New York, 199, p. 231 ff.]  The Council starts with the fact that humankind "has applied and continues to apply the means of science and technology to master practically all of nature" (Gaudium et Spes, 33). The Roman Catholic church is faced with the task of how to judge this immense undertaking. The Council gives an unambiguous answer: "One thing remains certain for the faithful: personal human endeavor, this massive effort of mankind in the course of the centuries to continually improve living conditions, corresponds to the will of God. God created man in His image and directed him to have dominion over the earth and all upon it and to rule in justice and holiness (Gen.1:26-28) ; all things were to be ordered in relationship to God as the creator of all things; and all things were to be under the dominion of mankind and God's name majestic in all the earth" (Ps. 8, Gaudium et Spes, 34). That which humans create does not oppose God's power. "The victories of humanity are much more to be seen as a sign of the greatness of God and as fruit of his unfathomable will."

As humankind continues to extend their dominion over creation, this also involves a transformation of humans per se. "By means of his striving man transforms not only the exterior world and society, but also perfects himself. He learns many things, develops his abilities, goes ever further and grows beyond himself" (Gaudium et Spes, 35). Everything depends upon how he applies these abilities, especially advancing technology. The Council emphasizes the autonomy of the earthly realm. "By the very fact that they have been created all things have their own value, their own truth and their own goodness as well as their own internal laws and relationships; this must be respected by mankind as he applies the methods of the related sciences and technologies"(Gaudium et Spes, 36). Certainly the Council understands that all human striving is marked by sin. Even if the church trusts the divine plan "that human progress can result in the blessing of mankind," the church must always warn of the danger of "conforming to the world" (Gaudium et Spes, 37). One must understand that all human striving must be cleansed and perfected through the cross of Christ and the resurrection. However, the work of mankind will be perfected. "To those who believe in His love God gives the certainty that the path of love stands open to all people and, that it is not in vain, to attempt to bring about a generous sharing, which encompasses all" (Gaudium et Spes, 38). In fact, human striving even has eschatological importance. "Although one must clearly distinguish between earthly progress and the growth of the kingdom of Christ, this progress does have great meaning for the kingdom of God, insofar as it is able to contribute towards a better ordering of human society" (Gaudium et Spes, 39).

What is new about this is the almost dithyrambic character of this description of the capabilities and accomplishments of humankind. Human progress is no longer grudgingly regarded, instead it is given a spiritual dimension. The work of men and women not only furthers creation, indeed it perfects it!

These pronouncements of the Council were repeated in the years which followed. In 1967 Pope Paul VI proclaimed that "In giving humankind intelligence, imagination and sensitivity, God has bestowed the means of perfecting the creation: whether artist, craftsman, entrepreneur, labourer or farmer, each one is a creator ... Human labour, particularly for Christians, involves collaborating in the mission to give the world a divine dimension, to be sure incomplete, until all shall together constitute one who is perfected in Christ, as Saint Paul has told us" (Populorum Progression, 27-28). [Denis Maugenast, op. cit., p. 510.]

Praise of human work by Pope John Paul II went even further and reached almost incredible heights. One of his first encyclicals (in the third year of his pontificate) was dedicated to this subject. It may have been his experiences in his native Poland which motivated him. For wasn't it precisely among Poland's workers that a growing resistance to the communist system was seen? And was it not important for the church to demonstrate its solidarity with this movement? The encyclical Laborem Exercens (1981) is an effort to show that the church disposes over a coherent and ongoing understanding of human work. [Laborum Exercens, Lettre Enclyclique sur le travail humain a l’occasion du 90ème anniversaire de l’Encyclique Rerum Novarum, le 14 septembre 1981 - Centesimus Annus, Lettre Encyclique à l’occasion du centennaire de l’Encyclique Rerum Novarum, le premier mai 1991.]  Not only the date of publication, but a series of explicit references places this document in the tradition of the encyclical Rerum Novarum. In reality these pronouncements go far beyond those of Leo XIII. and even beyond the Second Vatican Council.

Theologically just what does this encyclical add to the understanding of the human task? Right at the beginning we are pointed towards the answer: "Made in the image and resemblance of God Himself and placed in the visible world to have dominion over the earth, mankind has been called from the beginning to labour; to work is a characteristic which distinguishes man from all other creatures." The statement is further developed in the encyclical. Work constitutes a "fundamental dimension of human existence on earth" (4). Essential for understanding work is God's command to humankind "Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth and subdue it". Granted, these words do not speak expressly of work, but "without any doubt they allude indirectly to work as an activity to be exercised in the world" (4). Then one learns what God intends for this dominion over the earth. "The expression 'to subdue the earth' has far reaching consequences. It refers to all the resources in the earth (and indirectly of the entire planet) which conscious human effort might discover and employ with benefit. Thus it is, that these words placed at the beginning of the Bible never lose their relevance for our time ... If at times one speaks of periods of acceleration in economic life and in human civilization ... at the same time one can say that none of these spurts goes beyond the essence of this ancient biblical text. As human endeavor leads to ever greater mastery of the earth and its order, this remains, at every step and on every path, within the original plan of the Creator ... This is meant to be so for each and every one. Each and everyone, as appropriate and in an incalculable variety of ways, shall take part in this gigantic process through which human labour subdues the earth"(4). From this perspective even technology is seen in a positive light: "Technology is undoubtedly an ally; which eases, perfects, accelerates and increases the productivity of human labour" (5).

Work also has a subjective side. It serves the purpose of allowing human individuality to emerge. "Work is a positive aspect of being human because by means of work nature is not only transformed and adapted to human needs, but humans come to actualize themselves and even to realize what is essential about being human" (9). As important as the objective aspect of work is – namely subduing nature – it is the subjective aspect of work which is more important. Indeed, the personhood of humans is what merits the greatest attention. This becomes the measure by which we evaluate work (6). There must be concern for creating conditions under which people can bring forth their unique personhood. Part of this involves insuring that people remain in charge of their labour. Work must not degrade into a mere commodity. Human beings take precedence over the means of production and capital (12), which are instrumentalities. Humans beings should not be subordinated to the requirements of these instrumentalities. Human dignity also entails the right to work. Here the problematic of unemployment is addressed. However the causes of this phenomenon are not taken up. The encyclical limits itself to enlisting all to strenuously pursue providing for the "fundamental right of all humans to have work" (18).

However, does work truly only bring fulfillment in human life? What about the curse which God spoke to Adam after the fall? This encyclical gives a rather surprising, and exegetically seen, almost amusing answer. The words "by the sweat of your face you shall eat bread" refer to the fatigue, often burdensome, which, since then, accompanies work; they do not at all change the fact that work is the path which leads to the dominion accorded to mankind over the world" (9). Although Adam and Eve worked in paradise effortlessly, their work had now become exhausting. Nonetheless work remains an inestimable good. This is not to say that the encyclical knows nothing of the ambivalence of human labour. Indeed in the final section (27) one reads a second interpretation of God's curse: "All work, whether manual or intellectual, is inevitably linked with distress." Anyone who believes in Christ the crucified and resurrected takes up this burden. "In enduring the burden of work in union with Christ who was crucified for us, a person collaborates in some way with the Son of God in the redemption of humanity." Therefore, in Christ work is freed from its curse and can serve its original purpose.

In a separate section (26) of the encyclical we are reminded that Jesus himself worked as a carpenter (Mark 6:2-3). The one who preached the Gospel was also a worker. Even though Jesus never spoke about the duty to work, "his life is no less eloquent a statement in this regard; unequivocally, he belonged to 'the world of work.'" The Gospel which he preached is "a gospel of work".

The theses which Laborem Exercens presents are expressly repeated in the later encyclicals Sollicitudo Rei Socialis (1987) and Centesimus Annus (1991). We find for example the following statement: "In our time the role of human work has become a factor ever more important in the production of immaterial and material wealth ... More than ever today, to work, is to work with others and for others ... Work is all the more fruitful and productive, the more capable one is of recognizing the productive resources of the earth and of perceiving the deepest needs of the one for whom the work is being performed (Centesimus Annus, 31)."

What is to be made of all of this? First of all it striking to what extent the statements of the World Council of Churches and those of the Roman Catholic Magisterium are in agreement. Although much more reserved and sober, the documents of the World Council of Churches tend in the same direction as do those of the Second Vatican Council and the papal encyclicals. Statements such as "Humans are called to be a co-workers with God" or "As ordained by God human work contributes to the transformation of the creation" could easily have stemmed from the Roman Catholic documents. However in the spiritual grounding and affirmation of human work the Magisterium goes further than these statements. Indeed the Magisterium speaks of an actual "gospel of work".

To an even greater degree than with the World Council's documents, the question arises to what extent this outlook is supported by biblical witness. The encyclical Laborem Exercens claims to be in accord with the Holy Scriptures. Furthermore its statements are said to repeat essentially what the church has always taught about work. "The above outline of the fundamental problematic of work which references the earliest texts of the Bible constitutes in one sense the framework of the churches’ teaching which has remained unchanged down through the centuries within the various contexts of history" (11). We shall see however that the biblical basis cited in the encyclical is extremely meager. Important biblical texts are glossed over in favor of the single phrase "to subdue the earth" which it elevates to become its exclusive hermeneutic key. Furthermore, it is a simple matter to demonstrate that the Christian church held a different view of work for many centuries. In fact the encyclical Rerum Novarum, and, above all else, the Second Vatican Council represent a deep break in the continuity of the Magisterium.

Furthermore it is striking how seldom Roman Catholic writing has addressed the destruction of the environment. Even in the most recent documents, Centesimus Annus and the Catechism of the Roman Catholic Church, little more than brief passages are to be found, which have little consequence for the overall argument. Nowhere in this writing is it acknowledged that human work today in ever greater measure is bound up, not just in the transformation, but, in the exploitation of the planet. In contrast, the discussion of the ecological consequences of human activity has at least gotten started at the World Council of Churches in recent years How long will it be before the same discussion is taken up in the Roman Catholic Church? Before the year 2000? or will it be in an encyclical entitled Annus Centesimus Decimus? or even deeper into the next millennium when the damage has reached an extent which cannot be ignored?

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